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Minggu, 22 Mei 2011
Minggu, 08 Mei 2011
Technology takes place of socializing and books
Nowadays, technology truly seems to be everywhere. For the district of Auburn in Maine this is especially the case. Last week the district approved a $200,000 pilot program to buy 285 iPad 2 tablets for the kindergartners of the town. "What we're seeing is that this is an essential tool even more important than a book," said school superintendent Tom Morrill, as quoted from the Huffington Post. "It's a learning tool they need to have." The superintendent then went on to say that he would try to get grants and donations to fund the program.
The only question left is this: Why on Earth would a bunch of five-year-olds need to be surrounded by iPads in their classroom all day? And how could anyone think that an iPad is a more essential tool for kindergarteners to have than a book? The answer could be coming from the persistent need of our society to be constantly "plugged in" to some form of technology. In just walking down the street you can see tons of people with their heads down while they're surfing the Internet, browsing Facebook, Tweeting, or texting. But do we really need to be exposing our children at such a young age to this kind of technology? My answer is no.
One of the main purposes of kindergarten is for children to learn how to cooperate and interact with other people. This is one of the first opportunities a child has to socially interact with people outside of their family, and this is an important skill to have in life. If a child were to be dissuaded from learning this skill then there could be some serious setbacks during his or her development. It's unhealthy for a child to not be involved with the, group seeing as a huge part of life is all about learning how to behave in a group. We all remember that really awkward kid in elementary school who wouldn't talk to anyone and just mindlessly played on his GameBoy, right? Well to have this new "learning tool" at such an early level would be creating a whole generation of that particular kind of kid. He that was probably also the kid who got held back once or twice. That doesn't sound like a very appealing culture to me. We wouldn't be creating geniuses; we would be creating class dunces.
It is true that some individuals tend to be socially awkward anyway, but I think few would argue that even the socially awkward don't have their own group of friends they hang out with. Having children learn at a very young age that socializing with other children is unnecessary would make sure that even the most basic kind of bonding would rarely take place. Psychologists and even our own parents are seeing what this kind of technology is doing to us, and they're scared that we're becoming de-socialized. People who break off engagements over Facebook? Why would we want our children to start off with this kind of behavior?
The iPad being a learning tool that is more important than a book is just an absurd thought in itself. The processing of learning how to use an iPad or any of the 21st century technology is probably one of the easiest things a person can do in his or her everyday life. A child will pick up any kind of iPad or cell phone and learn how to use it within minutes. A book, however, is something that takes skill to learn how to use, and it allows a child's brain to really develop.
The bottom line is this; having iPads for kindergarteners is superfluous. If America is supposed to be trying to cut back in spending, what business does this district having buying this kind of unnecessary technology?
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The only question left is this: Why on Earth would a bunch of five-year-olds need to be surrounded by iPads in their classroom all day? And how could anyone think that an iPad is a more essential tool for kindergarteners to have than a book? The answer could be coming from the persistent need of our society to be constantly "plugged in" to some form of technology. In just walking down the street you can see tons of people with their heads down while they're surfing the Internet, browsing Facebook, Tweeting, or texting. But do we really need to be exposing our children at such a young age to this kind of technology? My answer is no.
One of the main purposes of kindergarten is for children to learn how to cooperate and interact with other people. This is one of the first opportunities a child has to socially interact with people outside of their family, and this is an important skill to have in life. If a child were to be dissuaded from learning this skill then there could be some serious setbacks during his or her development. It's unhealthy for a child to not be involved with the, group seeing as a huge part of life is all about learning how to behave in a group. We all remember that really awkward kid in elementary school who wouldn't talk to anyone and just mindlessly played on his GameBoy, right? Well to have this new "learning tool" at such an early level would be creating a whole generation of that particular kind of kid. He that was probably also the kid who got held back once or twice. That doesn't sound like a very appealing culture to me. We wouldn't be creating geniuses; we would be creating class dunces.
It is true that some individuals tend to be socially awkward anyway, but I think few would argue that even the socially awkward don't have their own group of friends they hang out with. Having children learn at a very young age that socializing with other children is unnecessary would make sure that even the most basic kind of bonding would rarely take place. Psychologists and even our own parents are seeing what this kind of technology is doing to us, and they're scared that we're becoming de-socialized. People who break off engagements over Facebook? Why would we want our children to start off with this kind of behavior?
The iPad being a learning tool that is more important than a book is just an absurd thought in itself. The processing of learning how to use an iPad or any of the 21st century technology is probably one of the easiest things a person can do in his or her everyday life. A child will pick up any kind of iPad or cell phone and learn how to use it within minutes. A book, however, is something that takes skill to learn how to use, and it allows a child's brain to really develop.
The bottom line is this; having iPads for kindergarteners is superfluous. If America is supposed to be trying to cut back in spending, what business does this district having buying this kind of unnecessary technology?
Get Hofstra news the way you want it!
©2011 HofstraChronicle.com - All Rights Reserved
No part of this site may be reproduced, in part or in full, without the full consent of The Chronicle and/or HofstraChronicle.com.
This site is powered by:College Publisher 5 College Media Network is a member of the Access Network Privacy Policy|Terms of Use
web22.collegepublisher.com/se/The_Chronicle
Sponsored by: MTV Networks
Minggu, 10 April 2011
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Cell phone users have more gripes than rights
Monday, April 11, 2011
By Gabrielle Banks, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette
A voice on the other end fades in and out.
A call drops off midstream.
This is the bargain we've agreed to.
Committing to a mobile phone carrier is always a bit of a gamble. Each time you place a call, you hope that somehow -- through airwaves and signals and towers -- that someone will get your call on the other end and you'll make it through an intelligible conversation.
But, simply stated, cell phone users have no right to connect. There is no government-enforced right to one, two or three bars, even if you're standing inches from a tower. And no state has enacted even basic service quality standards: Multiple attempts to pass a cellular users' "Bill of Rights" have failed at the state and federal levels in the two decades since the advent of digital phone service.
What the Federal Communication Commission does require is truthful, clear billing. The FCC also has set a standard for making sure cellular calls go through to 911. Otherwise, the feds only ask that companies make their best effort to connect and maintain all other calls, but the fine print has never quantified or spelled out what best effort means.
Industry experts say that mega-mergers such as AT&T's recently proposed acquisition of T-Mobile may affect the quality of calls. More spectrum may mean better signal quality for callers and the additional bandwidth could improve services such as mobile video. Opponents of the merger say the loss of the lower cost service from T-Mobile may make cell phones unaffordable for some users.
It's likely that the range and quality of service won't improve, said Brian O'Hara, legislative director for telecommunications for the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners. "In previous wireless mergers where there are overlapping licenses, the companies have had to sell off some of those licenses. So [the merger] could eliminate some of the synergy that AT&T is talking about. In places like New York City, if you sell T-Mobile's spectrum licenses, you'll have more customers [sharing] the same amount of spectrum."
Wireless companies carefully word their agreements. If a salesperson shows you a map of the company's coverage area, there undoubtedly will be an asterisk or disclaimer somewhere, explaining that it is meant as an approximation of coverage areas.
"There are a lot of things, determined by the law of physics, that can disrupt the quality of a call or interrupt service," said Paul Feldman, a telecommunications lawyer at Fletcher, Heald & Hildreth in Arlington, Va. These may include "natural barriers like buildings or mountains, and weather conditions that change from moment to moment and place to place and make it harder for wireless companies to guarantee any specific level of service."
Companies must report outages to the FCC, not to consumers. Market competition, rather than regulation, is supposed to be the motivating factor for the handful of companies jockeying for customers.
So while the carriers duke it out in the marketplace, here are a few tips for finding the best coverage and advocating for improved coverage once you're locked into an agreement:
• Evaluate your options. While you're reviewing various cell phone plans based on your needs and budget, take time to measure them against industrywide criteria for fair business practices. CTIA-The Wireless Association, the trade organization for providers, offers guidelines (www.ctia.org/consumer_info/service/index.cfm/AID/10352) that state that a provider should advertise truthfully; disclose rates, terms of service, changes in service and taxes; offer maps of service areas; allow a trial period for new service; provide the right to terminate service for changes in contract terms; offer easily accessible customer service, and protect customer privacy.
You may also want to take CTIA's Frequently Asked Questions form (http://files.ctia.org/pdf/WirelessFAQ.pdf ) and checklist (http://files.ctia.org/pdf/Checklist.pdf) on any cellular shopping expedition.
• Ask about the coverage area. Neighbors and friends can give you feedback about dead spots they've encountered with various providers, or you can view reported dead spots in your area, by company, at www.deadcellzones.com. Vendors may provide an official explanation of coverage areas and a map to illustrate it. Read the disclaimer. Ask about limitations up front. Salespeople, who often use the carrier they sell, also might share some anecdotal information about dead spots around town if you ask.
• Try before you buy. Occasional patchy calls are part of the bargain all users sign up for; however, the industry has agreed in recent years to offer 14- to 30-day trial periods for new subscribers. Nils Frederiksen, spokesman for the Pennsylvania Attorney General's office, suggested users "give it a thorough workout" during this probationary period and test the quality of service. Cruise along the highways you normally travel and into remote corners of your home and workplace as much as possible. (Be sure to ask whether you are expected to return your phone and if your activation charge will be refunded.)
"Understand what your obligations are under the contract. If you don't flag problems or deal with issues up front, it becomes more challenging later on," Mr. Frederiksen said. Should you wait and cancel after the trial period expires, most plans will charge an early termination fee.
• Document calls to customer service and tech support. If your connection is subpar, troubleshoot with your wireless carriers' staff. They should inform you about outages in your area, but you might have to ask. Keep track of the dates of the calls, the names and departments of the support staffers, what remedies they attempted and any promises they made before filing a complaint at the state or federal level.
• Lodge a formal complaint. Some states allow citizens to complain to their public utility commissions, but Pennsylvania is not among those with jurisdiction over its wireless carriers. If you believe you've been given false or deceptive information regarding the quality of calls or what's included in your service or messaging plans, you can contact the Attorney General's Bureau of Consumer Protection toll-free hot line at 1-800-441-2555 or fill out a form at www.attorneygeneral.gov/complaints.aspx?id=33 -- or print it, fill it out and mail it to: Office of Attorney General, Bureau of Consumer Protection, 14th Floor, Strawberry Square Harrisburg, Pa. 17120.
Small disputes may be mediated and the state might ask for restitution, fines or penalties. Patterns of deception might be addressed in Common Pleas or Commonwealth Court.
You also may submit complaints to the Federal Communications Commission online at http://esupport.fcc.gov/complaints.htm via email to fccinfo@fcc.gov or call 1-888-CALL-FCC or 1-888-TELL-FCC TTY; via fax to 1-866-418-0232; or by mail to: Federal Communications Commission, Consumer & Governmental Affairs Bureau, Consumer Inquiries and Complaints Division, 445 12th Street, SW, Washington, D.C. 20554.
In addition, you may file complaints about deceptive advertising to the Federal Trade Commission at www.ftccomplaintassistant.gov/FTC_Wizard.aspx?Lang=en. The FTC will not investigate individual complaints, however, the agency will add your complaint into a database that can track patterns of corporate misconduct.
Know Your Rights explores your legal protections and rights in a broad range of everyday situations. If you have a topic you would like to see explored in Know Your Rights, contact Gabrielle Banks at gmbanks@gmail.com.
Gabrielle Banks: gbanks@post-gazette.com.
First published on April 11, 2011 at 12:00 am
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Cell phone users have more gripes than rights
Monday, April 11, 2011
By Gabrielle Banks, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette
A voice on the other end fades in and out.
A call drops off midstream.
This is the bargain we've agreed to.
Committing to a mobile phone carrier is always a bit of a gamble. Each time you place a call, you hope that somehow -- through airwaves and signals and towers -- that someone will get your call on the other end and you'll make it through an intelligible conversation.
But, simply stated, cell phone users have no right to connect. There is no government-enforced right to one, two or three bars, even if you're standing inches from a tower. And no state has enacted even basic service quality standards: Multiple attempts to pass a cellular users' "Bill of Rights" have failed at the state and federal levels in the two decades since the advent of digital phone service.
What the Federal Communication Commission does require is truthful, clear billing. The FCC also has set a standard for making sure cellular calls go through to 911. Otherwise, the feds only ask that companies make their best effort to connect and maintain all other calls, but the fine print has never quantified or spelled out what best effort means.
Industry experts say that mega-mergers such as AT&T's recently proposed acquisition of T-Mobile may affect the quality of calls. More spectrum may mean better signal quality for callers and the additional bandwidth could improve services such as mobile video. Opponents of the merger say the loss of the lower cost service from T-Mobile may make cell phones unaffordable for some users.
It's likely that the range and quality of service won't improve, said Brian O'Hara, legislative director for telecommunications for the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners. "In previous wireless mergers where there are overlapping licenses, the companies have had to sell off some of those licenses. So [the merger] could eliminate some of the synergy that AT&T is talking about. In places like New York City, if you sell T-Mobile's spectrum licenses, you'll have more customers [sharing] the same amount of spectrum."
Wireless companies carefully word their agreements. If a salesperson shows you a map of the company's coverage area, there undoubtedly will be an asterisk or disclaimer somewhere, explaining that it is meant as an approximation of coverage areas.
"There are a lot of things, determined by the law of physics, that can disrupt the quality of a call or interrupt service," said Paul Feldman, a telecommunications lawyer at Fletcher, Heald & Hildreth in Arlington, Va. These may include "natural barriers like buildings or mountains, and weather conditions that change from moment to moment and place to place and make it harder for wireless companies to guarantee any specific level of service."
Companies must report outages to the FCC, not to consumers. Market competition, rather than regulation, is supposed to be the motivating factor for the handful of companies jockeying for customers.
So while the carriers duke it out in the marketplace, here are a few tips for finding the best coverage and advocating for improved coverage once you're locked into an agreement:
• Evaluate your options. While you're reviewing various cell phone plans based on your needs and budget, take time to measure them against industrywide criteria for fair business practices. CTIA-The Wireless Association, the trade organization for providers, offers guidelines (www.ctia.org/consumer_info/service/index.cfm/AID/10352) that state that a provider should advertise truthfully; disclose rates, terms of service, changes in service and taxes; offer maps of service areas; allow a trial period for new service; provide the right to terminate service for changes in contract terms; offer easily accessible customer service, and protect customer privacy.
You may also want to take CTIA's Frequently Asked Questions form (http://files.ctia.org/pdf/WirelessFAQ.pdf ) and checklist (http://files.ctia.org/pdf/Checklist.pdf) on any cellular shopping expedition.
• Ask about the coverage area. Neighbors and friends can give you feedback about dead spots they've encountered with various providers, or you can view reported dead spots in your area, by company, at www.deadcellzones.com. Vendors may provide an official explanation of coverage areas and a map to illustrate it. Read the disclaimer. Ask about limitations up front. Salespeople, who often use the carrier they sell, also might share some anecdotal information about dead spots around town if you ask.
• Try before you buy. Occasional patchy calls are part of the bargain all users sign up for; however, the industry has agreed in recent years to offer 14- to 30-day trial periods for new subscribers. Nils Frederiksen, spokesman for the Pennsylvania Attorney General's office, suggested users "give it a thorough workout" during this probationary period and test the quality of service. Cruise along the highways you normally travel and into remote corners of your home and workplace as much as possible. (Be sure to ask whether you are expected to return your phone and if your activation charge will be refunded.)
"Understand what your obligations are under the contract. If you don't flag problems or deal with issues up front, it becomes more challenging later on," Mr. Frederiksen said. Should you wait and cancel after the trial period expires, most plans will charge an early termination fee.
• Document calls to customer service and tech support. If your connection is subpar, troubleshoot with your wireless carriers' staff. They should inform you about outages in your area, but you might have to ask. Keep track of the dates of the calls, the names and departments of the support staffers, what remedies they attempted and any promises they made before filing a complaint at the state or federal level.
• Lodge a formal complaint. Some states allow citizens to complain to their public utility commissions, but Pennsylvania is not among those with jurisdiction over its wireless carriers. If you believe you've been given false or deceptive information regarding the quality of calls or what's included in your service or messaging plans, you can contact the Attorney General's Bureau of Consumer Protection toll-free hot line at 1-800-441-2555 or fill out a form at www.attorneygeneral.gov/complaints.aspx?id=33 -- or print it, fill it out and mail it to: Office of Attorney General, Bureau of Consumer Protection, 14th Floor, Strawberry Square Harrisburg, Pa. 17120.
Small disputes may be mediated and the state might ask for restitution, fines or penalties. Patterns of deception might be addressed in Common Pleas or Commonwealth Court.
You also may submit complaints to the Federal Communications Commission online at http://esupport.fcc.gov/complaints.htm via email to fccinfo@fcc.gov or call 1-888-CALL-FCC or 1-888-TELL-FCC TTY; via fax to 1-866-418-0232; or by mail to: Federal Communications Commission, Consumer & Governmental Affairs Bureau, Consumer Inquiries and Complaints Division, 445 12th Street, SW, Washington, D.C. 20554.
In addition, you may file complaints about deceptive advertising to the Federal Trade Commission at www.ftccomplaintassistant.gov/FTC_Wizard.aspx?Lang=en. The FTC will not investigate individual complaints, however, the agency will add your complaint into a database that can track patterns of corporate misconduct.
Know Your Rights explores your legal protections and rights in a broad range of everyday situations. If you have a topic you would like to see explored in Know Your Rights, contact Gabrielle Banks at gmbanks@gmail.com.
Gabrielle Banks: gbanks@post-gazette.com.
First published on April 11, 2011 at 12:00 am
Click to learn more...
Featured Cars
335i '10 Jet Black, Save Thousands, Factory...
$34,885
G6 GXP '08 Sport Coupe...
$20,600
Accord Ex-l '08 Only 21K Miles...
$18,988
Passat '05 Turbo Diesel, Black, Just Serviced....
$14,900
Century '02 Custom Sedan Auto, A/c...
$9,400
more »
Online: Contact Us Site Map Terms of Use Privacy Policy Advertise About Us What's New Help Corrections
Print: Home Delivery Payment Vacation Address Change Rates Customer Service Delivery Questions Back Copies Specials Gift Subscriptions Newsstand FAQ
Copyright ©1997 - 2011 PG Publishing Co., Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Read more: http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/11101/1138377-499.stm#ixzz1JBqca9RK
Rabu, 23 Maret 2011
teknologi multimedia
PEMANFAATAN TEKNOLOGI MULTIMEDIA DALAM PEMBELAJARAN
Judul: PEMANFAATAN TEKNOLOGI MULTIMEDIA DALAM PEMBELAJARAN
Bahan ini cocok untuk Mohon Pilih bagian PENDIDIKAN / EDUCATION.
Nama & E-mail (Penulis): Hidayat Raharja,S.Pd.
Saya Guru di SMAN 1 SUMENEP
Topik: teknologi multimedia
Tanggal: 27 JUNI 2008
Majunya teknologi informasi merupakan suatu perkembangan yang memberikan akses terhadap perubahan kehidupan masyarakat. Dunia informasi menjadi salah satu wilayah yang berkembang pesat dan banyak mempengaruhi peradaban masyarakat. Radio, Televisi, DVD, VCD merupakan salah satu perangkat elektronik yang menjadi bagian dari perabot rumahtangga. Selain berfungsi informatif, media teknologi tersebut merupakan salah satu media entertainment yang memberikan pilihan hiburan menyegarkan.
Akibat kemajuan media teknologi informasi, kehidupan masyarakat memasuki zone rekreatif (hiburan). Tidak dapat dibayangkan, ketika media televisi telah menjadi salah satu media yang menyediakan diri selama 24 jam untuk memberikan hiburan di tengah-tengah keluarga. Setiap sajian acara yang ditayangkan, senantiasa dikemas dalam unsur hiburan. Bukan hanya tayangan sinetron, iklan, bahkan pemberitaan (news) tak lepas dari unsur hiburan. Bagaimana berita kriminal dan mistik menjadi salah satu tayangan di berbagai stasiun televisi yang mampu menghipnotis pemirsa untuk tetap bertahan di hadapan layar televisi.
Hadirnya teknologi media audiovisual, telah menciptakan budaya masyarakat rekreatif dan konsumtif. Masyarakat memiliki banyak pilihan untuk menghibur diri dan membuang kesumpekan hidup yang makin menjepit.
Kondisi perubahan peradaban tersebut, telah pula menjadi pemicu terhadap upaya perubahan sisitem pembelajaran di sekolah. Upaya untuk melepaskan diri dari kungkungan pembelajaran konvensional yang memaksa anak untuk mengikuti pembelajran yang tidak menarik, dan membosankan, sehingga meminjam ungkapan Faulo Fraire, sekolah tak lebih merupakan bangunan tembok penjara yang menghukum penghuninya untuk mengikuti (memaksa) menerima segenap ajaran yang berkubang di dalamnya.
Neil Postman, salah satu filosof dan pakar pendidikan semakin mencemaskan terhadap kehidupan lembaga persekolahan yang semakin teralineasi dari kultur masyrakat yang kian dinamis, sehingga sampai pada taraf asumtif, matinya nilai-nilai pendidikan.
Kondisi sekolah, senantiasa dituntut untuk terus-menerus mengikuti perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi yang berkembang pesat, sehingga sekolah yang tetap berkutat pada instruksional kurikul;um hanya akan membuat peserta didik gagap meliohat realitas yang mengepungnya.
Kehadiran teknologi multimedia, bukan lagi menjadi barang mewah, karena harganya bisa dijangkau oleh segenap lapisan masyarakat untuk memiliki dan menikmatinya. Artinya, sekolah sebagai lembaga pendidikan harus mampu untuk memiliki teknologi tersebut sehingga bisa menjadikannya sebagai media pembelajaran yang menarik, interaktif, dan mampu mengembangkan kecakapan personal secara optimal, baik kecakapan, kognitif, afektif, psikomotrik, emosional dan spiritualnya. Hal ini amat memungkinkan, ketika ruang belajar di luar gedung sekolah, telah menghasilkan berbagai produk audiovisual yang bernilai- edukatif, mulai dari mata pelajaran yang yang disajiukan dalam bentuk quiz, ataupun dalam bentuk penceritaan dan berbagai permainan yang memukau.
Salah satu sekolah menengah di Jember (SMAN 2) beberapa waktu lalu, telah mempublikasikan diri sebagai salah satu sekolah yang memakai perangkat multimedia untuk pembelajaran. Setiap guru wajib membuat media pembelajaran dengan teknologi multimedia dan menayangkannya (mempergunakan) dalam pembelajaran. Sungguh sangat menarik, dengan peralatan handycam, dan komputer (PC), seorang guru membuat media pembelajaran audiovisual yang akan memancing minat siswa untuk belajar dan tertarik untuk mengembangkan pengetahuannya. Kondisi yang membuat iri, berbagai sekolah untuk memiliki perangkat pembelajaran semacam itu. Bahkan, sudah waktunya pula apabila sekolah memanfaatkan situs-situs pengetahuan di dunia cyber untuk dimanfaatkan dalam pembelajaran.
Benarkah pemanfaatan teknologi multimedia akan membuat pembelajaran menjadi lebih menarik? Bagaimana seharusnya menyiapkan perangkat pembelajaran multimedia sehinggga menjadi tayangan yang menarik, dan efektif dalam pemanfaatannya untuk mengembangkan kemampuan siswa?
Ada sesuatu yang ganjil dalam pemakaian teknologi multimedia yang dipergunakan di SMA 2 Jember dalam pemberiataan jawa pos (maret, 2004), diantaranya pembelajaran agama, dengan menyagankan guru agama yang tengah berceramah. Pembelajaran matematika dengan mempergunakan CD dan hanya berisi berbagai keterangan (tulisan) yang berhubungan dengan pembelajaran. Atau di tempat lain, seorang guru menayangkan pembelajaran mempergunakan VCD yang berdurasi selama 90 menit (2 jam pelajaran) dari awal sampai tayangan berakhir siswa hanya diajak untuk menonton, tanpa ada sesuatu yang bisa mengukur pemahaman siswa terhadap apa yang diatayangkan. Contoh tersebut merupakan salah satu bentuk pemanfaatan media audiovisual yang diarasakan kurang efektif. Karena bila kita menengok pada ceramah agama di berbagai stasiun televisi sudah dikemas sedemikian menghibur dan mampu menarik minat pemirsa untuk saling berinteraksi. Artinya, sebelum media teknologi tersebut dipergunakan, terlebih dahyulku dikenali karakteristik dari tiap media, sehingga bisa dimanfaatkan secara efektif dan efisien
Dr.Vernom A.Magnesen (1983) menyatakan kita belajar, "10% dari apa yang dibaca; 20% dari apa yang didengar, 30% dari apa yang dilihat, 50% dari apa yang dilihat dan dengar, 70% dari apa yang dikatakan, 90% dari apa yang dilakukan"
Berpijak kepada konsep Vernom, bahwa pembelajaran dengan mempergunakan teknologi audiovisual akan meningkatkan kemamp[uan belajarn sebesar 50%, daripada dengan tanpa mempergunakan media. Namun dengan melihat pada realitas yang ditemukan pada proses pembelajaran tersebut, maka pencapaian belajar secara efektif akan dicapai apabila:
(1) Guru mengenal keunggulan dan kelemahan dari setiap media teknologi yang dipergunakan. Penggunaan teknologi auditif bukan berarti lebih buruk daripada media audiovisual, karena ada beberapa materi pembelajaran yang akan lebih baik ditayangkan dengan mempergunakan teknologi auditif untuk merangsang imajinasi siswa, dan melatih kepekaan pendengaran
(2) Menentukan pilihan materi yang akan ditayangkan, apakah sesuai dengan penggunaan media auditif, visual, atau audiovisual. Misalnya untuk melatih kepekaan siswa dalam memahami percakapan bahasa inggris, akan lebih baik kalau dipergunakan media auditif, sementara untuk mengetahui ragam budaya masyarakat berbagai bangsa tentu lebih relevan dengan mempergunakan tayangan audiovisual.
(3) Menyiapkan skenario tayangan, tentu berbeda dengan satuan pelajaran, karena disini menyangkut terhadap model tayangan yang akan disajikan sehingga menjadi menarik, nantinya akan mampu mengembangkan berbagai aspek kemampuan (potensi) dalam diri siswa.. Tidak kalah pentingnya, adalah bagaimana membuat anak tetap fokus kepada tayangan yang disajikan, dan mengukur apa yang telah dilakukan siswa dengan
(4) menyiapkan lembar tugas atau quiz yang harus dikerjakan siswa ketika menyaksikan tayangan pembelajaran
*****
Upaya membuat anak betah belajar disekolah dengan memanfaatkan teknologi multimedia, merupakan kebutuhan, sehingga sekolah tidak lagi menjadi ruangan yang menakutkan dengan berbagai tugas dan ancaman yang justru mengkooptasi kemampuan atau potensi dalam diri siswa. Untuk itu, peran serta masyarakat dan orangtua , komite sekolah merupakan partner yang dapat merencanakan dan memajukan sekolah.
Pemanfaatan teknologi merupakan kebutuhan mutlak dalam dunia pendidikan (persekolahan) sehingga sekolah benar-benar menjadi ruang belajar dan tempat siswa mengembangkan kemampuannya secara optimal, dan nantinya mampu berinteraksi ke tanmgah-tengah masyarakatnya. Lulusan sekolah yang mampu menjadi bagian intergaral peradaban masyarakatnya. Suatu keinginan yang tidak mudah, apabila sekolah-sekolah yang ada tidak tanggap untuk melakukan perubahan. Sejarah persekolahan di indonesia telah mencatat, bahwa upaya-upaya perubahan yang dilakukan pemerintah untuk melakukan pengembangan terhadap kurikulum sesuai dengan perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi, juiga pengembangan terhadap berbagai metode dan proses pembelajaran yang menarik untuk memancing dan memicu perkembangan kreatif siswa pada akhirnya kermbali kepada titik awal; betapa sulitnya perubahan itu?
Setidaknya dengan akan diberlakukannya kurikulum 2004 (KBK), pembelajaran di sekolah akan menjadi sangat variatif, rekreatif, dan tentu kontekstual. Jika murid tidak mampu bukan sepenuhnya kesalahan murid, tetapi bisa jadi kesalahan kolektif pihak sekolah yang kurang kondusif. Nyatanya, bila melihat dari faktor usia, siswa memiliki peluang besar untuk mengikuti perubahan yang ada, sementara kata orang bijak justru guru yang paling sulit berubah, karena faktor usia yang merasa lebih tua dan lebih tahu.
Teknologi telah hadir di hadapan kita, bagaimana kita memanfaatkannya secara optimal untuk nenajukan dunia pendidikan (bukan pendudukan) yang kita dicintai bersama. Tentunya semua itu amat bergantung kepada dana dan sumber daya, dan penghargaan terhadap manusianya.
Saya Hidayat Raharja,S.Pd. setuju jika bahan yang dikirim dapat dipasang dan digunakan di Homepage Pendidikan Network dan saya menjamin bahwa bahan ini hasil karya saya sendiri dan sah (tidak ada copyright). .
CATATAN:
Artikel-artikel yang muncul di sini akan tetap di pertanggungjawabkan oleh penulis-penulis artikel masing-masing dan belum tentu mencerminkan sikap, pendapat atau kepercayaan Pendidikan Network.
Pendidikan-DasarSekolah-MenengahPerguruan-TinggiCari-PekerjaanTeknologi&Pendidikan
Judul: PEMANFAATAN TEKNOLOGI MULTIMEDIA DALAM PEMBELAJARAN
Bahan ini cocok untuk Mohon Pilih bagian PENDIDIKAN / EDUCATION.
Nama & E-mail (Penulis): Hidayat Raharja,S.Pd.
Saya Guru di SMAN 1 SUMENEP
Topik: teknologi multimedia
Tanggal: 27 JUNI 2008
Majunya teknologi informasi merupakan suatu perkembangan yang memberikan akses terhadap perubahan kehidupan masyarakat. Dunia informasi menjadi salah satu wilayah yang berkembang pesat dan banyak mempengaruhi peradaban masyarakat. Radio, Televisi, DVD, VCD merupakan salah satu perangkat elektronik yang menjadi bagian dari perabot rumahtangga. Selain berfungsi informatif, media teknologi tersebut merupakan salah satu media entertainment yang memberikan pilihan hiburan menyegarkan.
Akibat kemajuan media teknologi informasi, kehidupan masyarakat memasuki zone rekreatif (hiburan). Tidak dapat dibayangkan, ketika media televisi telah menjadi salah satu media yang menyediakan diri selama 24 jam untuk memberikan hiburan di tengah-tengah keluarga. Setiap sajian acara yang ditayangkan, senantiasa dikemas dalam unsur hiburan. Bukan hanya tayangan sinetron, iklan, bahkan pemberitaan (news) tak lepas dari unsur hiburan. Bagaimana berita kriminal dan mistik menjadi salah satu tayangan di berbagai stasiun televisi yang mampu menghipnotis pemirsa untuk tetap bertahan di hadapan layar televisi.
Hadirnya teknologi media audiovisual, telah menciptakan budaya masyarakat rekreatif dan konsumtif. Masyarakat memiliki banyak pilihan untuk menghibur diri dan membuang kesumpekan hidup yang makin menjepit.
Kondisi perubahan peradaban tersebut, telah pula menjadi pemicu terhadap upaya perubahan sisitem pembelajaran di sekolah. Upaya untuk melepaskan diri dari kungkungan pembelajaran konvensional yang memaksa anak untuk mengikuti pembelajran yang tidak menarik, dan membosankan, sehingga meminjam ungkapan Faulo Fraire, sekolah tak lebih merupakan bangunan tembok penjara yang menghukum penghuninya untuk mengikuti (memaksa) menerima segenap ajaran yang berkubang di dalamnya.
Neil Postman, salah satu filosof dan pakar pendidikan semakin mencemaskan terhadap kehidupan lembaga persekolahan yang semakin teralineasi dari kultur masyrakat yang kian dinamis, sehingga sampai pada taraf asumtif, matinya nilai-nilai pendidikan.
Kondisi sekolah, senantiasa dituntut untuk terus-menerus mengikuti perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi yang berkembang pesat, sehingga sekolah yang tetap berkutat pada instruksional kurikul;um hanya akan membuat peserta didik gagap meliohat realitas yang mengepungnya.
Kehadiran teknologi multimedia, bukan lagi menjadi barang mewah, karena harganya bisa dijangkau oleh segenap lapisan masyarakat untuk memiliki dan menikmatinya. Artinya, sekolah sebagai lembaga pendidikan harus mampu untuk memiliki teknologi tersebut sehingga bisa menjadikannya sebagai media pembelajaran yang menarik, interaktif, dan mampu mengembangkan kecakapan personal secara optimal, baik kecakapan, kognitif, afektif, psikomotrik, emosional dan spiritualnya. Hal ini amat memungkinkan, ketika ruang belajar di luar gedung sekolah, telah menghasilkan berbagai produk audiovisual yang bernilai- edukatif, mulai dari mata pelajaran yang yang disajiukan dalam bentuk quiz, ataupun dalam bentuk penceritaan dan berbagai permainan yang memukau.
Salah satu sekolah menengah di Jember (SMAN 2) beberapa waktu lalu, telah mempublikasikan diri sebagai salah satu sekolah yang memakai perangkat multimedia untuk pembelajaran. Setiap guru wajib membuat media pembelajaran dengan teknologi multimedia dan menayangkannya (mempergunakan) dalam pembelajaran. Sungguh sangat menarik, dengan peralatan handycam, dan komputer (PC), seorang guru membuat media pembelajaran audiovisual yang akan memancing minat siswa untuk belajar dan tertarik untuk mengembangkan pengetahuannya. Kondisi yang membuat iri, berbagai sekolah untuk memiliki perangkat pembelajaran semacam itu. Bahkan, sudah waktunya pula apabila sekolah memanfaatkan situs-situs pengetahuan di dunia cyber untuk dimanfaatkan dalam pembelajaran.
Benarkah pemanfaatan teknologi multimedia akan membuat pembelajaran menjadi lebih menarik? Bagaimana seharusnya menyiapkan perangkat pembelajaran multimedia sehinggga menjadi tayangan yang menarik, dan efektif dalam pemanfaatannya untuk mengembangkan kemampuan siswa?
Ada sesuatu yang ganjil dalam pemakaian teknologi multimedia yang dipergunakan di SMA 2 Jember dalam pemberiataan jawa pos (maret, 2004), diantaranya pembelajaran agama, dengan menyagankan guru agama yang tengah berceramah. Pembelajaran matematika dengan mempergunakan CD dan hanya berisi berbagai keterangan (tulisan) yang berhubungan dengan pembelajaran. Atau di tempat lain, seorang guru menayangkan pembelajaran mempergunakan VCD yang berdurasi selama 90 menit (2 jam pelajaran) dari awal sampai tayangan berakhir siswa hanya diajak untuk menonton, tanpa ada sesuatu yang bisa mengukur pemahaman siswa terhadap apa yang diatayangkan. Contoh tersebut merupakan salah satu bentuk pemanfaatan media audiovisual yang diarasakan kurang efektif. Karena bila kita menengok pada ceramah agama di berbagai stasiun televisi sudah dikemas sedemikian menghibur dan mampu menarik minat pemirsa untuk saling berinteraksi. Artinya, sebelum media teknologi tersebut dipergunakan, terlebih dahyulku dikenali karakteristik dari tiap media, sehingga bisa dimanfaatkan secara efektif dan efisien
Dr.Vernom A.Magnesen (1983) menyatakan kita belajar, "10% dari apa yang dibaca; 20% dari apa yang didengar, 30% dari apa yang dilihat, 50% dari apa yang dilihat dan dengar, 70% dari apa yang dikatakan, 90% dari apa yang dilakukan"
Berpijak kepada konsep Vernom, bahwa pembelajaran dengan mempergunakan teknologi audiovisual akan meningkatkan kemamp[uan belajarn sebesar 50%, daripada dengan tanpa mempergunakan media. Namun dengan melihat pada realitas yang ditemukan pada proses pembelajaran tersebut, maka pencapaian belajar secara efektif akan dicapai apabila:
(1) Guru mengenal keunggulan dan kelemahan dari setiap media teknologi yang dipergunakan. Penggunaan teknologi auditif bukan berarti lebih buruk daripada media audiovisual, karena ada beberapa materi pembelajaran yang akan lebih baik ditayangkan dengan mempergunakan teknologi auditif untuk merangsang imajinasi siswa, dan melatih kepekaan pendengaran
(2) Menentukan pilihan materi yang akan ditayangkan, apakah sesuai dengan penggunaan media auditif, visual, atau audiovisual. Misalnya untuk melatih kepekaan siswa dalam memahami percakapan bahasa inggris, akan lebih baik kalau dipergunakan media auditif, sementara untuk mengetahui ragam budaya masyarakat berbagai bangsa tentu lebih relevan dengan mempergunakan tayangan audiovisual.
(3) Menyiapkan skenario tayangan, tentu berbeda dengan satuan pelajaran, karena disini menyangkut terhadap model tayangan yang akan disajikan sehingga menjadi menarik, nantinya akan mampu mengembangkan berbagai aspek kemampuan (potensi) dalam diri siswa.. Tidak kalah pentingnya, adalah bagaimana membuat anak tetap fokus kepada tayangan yang disajikan, dan mengukur apa yang telah dilakukan siswa dengan
(4) menyiapkan lembar tugas atau quiz yang harus dikerjakan siswa ketika menyaksikan tayangan pembelajaran
*****
Upaya membuat anak betah belajar disekolah dengan memanfaatkan teknologi multimedia, merupakan kebutuhan, sehingga sekolah tidak lagi menjadi ruangan yang menakutkan dengan berbagai tugas dan ancaman yang justru mengkooptasi kemampuan atau potensi dalam diri siswa. Untuk itu, peran serta masyarakat dan orangtua , komite sekolah merupakan partner yang dapat merencanakan dan memajukan sekolah.
Pemanfaatan teknologi merupakan kebutuhan mutlak dalam dunia pendidikan (persekolahan) sehingga sekolah benar-benar menjadi ruang belajar dan tempat siswa mengembangkan kemampuannya secara optimal, dan nantinya mampu berinteraksi ke tanmgah-tengah masyarakatnya. Lulusan sekolah yang mampu menjadi bagian intergaral peradaban masyarakatnya. Suatu keinginan yang tidak mudah, apabila sekolah-sekolah yang ada tidak tanggap untuk melakukan perubahan. Sejarah persekolahan di indonesia telah mencatat, bahwa upaya-upaya perubahan yang dilakukan pemerintah untuk melakukan pengembangan terhadap kurikulum sesuai dengan perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi, juiga pengembangan terhadap berbagai metode dan proses pembelajaran yang menarik untuk memancing dan memicu perkembangan kreatif siswa pada akhirnya kermbali kepada titik awal; betapa sulitnya perubahan itu?
Setidaknya dengan akan diberlakukannya kurikulum 2004 (KBK), pembelajaran di sekolah akan menjadi sangat variatif, rekreatif, dan tentu kontekstual. Jika murid tidak mampu bukan sepenuhnya kesalahan murid, tetapi bisa jadi kesalahan kolektif pihak sekolah yang kurang kondusif. Nyatanya, bila melihat dari faktor usia, siswa memiliki peluang besar untuk mengikuti perubahan yang ada, sementara kata orang bijak justru guru yang paling sulit berubah, karena faktor usia yang merasa lebih tua dan lebih tahu.
Teknologi telah hadir di hadapan kita, bagaimana kita memanfaatkannya secara optimal untuk nenajukan dunia pendidikan (bukan pendudukan) yang kita dicintai bersama. Tentunya semua itu amat bergantung kepada dana dan sumber daya, dan penghargaan terhadap manusianya.
Saya Hidayat Raharja,S.Pd. setuju jika bahan yang dikirim dapat dipasang dan digunakan di Homepage Pendidikan Network dan saya menjamin bahwa bahan ini hasil karya saya sendiri dan sah (tidak ada copyright). .
CATATAN:
Artikel-artikel yang muncul di sini akan tetap di pertanggungjawabkan oleh penulis-penulis artikel masing-masing dan belum tentu mencerminkan sikap, pendapat atau kepercayaan Pendidikan Network.
Pendidikan-DasarSekolah-MenengahPerguruan-TinggiCari-PekerjaanTeknologi&Pendidikan
Minggu, 20 Maret 2011
Science and technology studies
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Science and technology studies (STS) is the study of how social, political, and cultural values affect scientific research and technological innovation, and how these in turn affect society, politics, and culture. STS scholars are interested in a variety of problems including the relationships between scientific and technological innovations and society, and the directions and risks of science and technology. More than two dozen universities worldwide offer baccalaureate degrees in STS; about half of these also offer doctoral or master's programs.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History
o 1.1 Early developments
o 1.2 The "turn to technology"
* 2 Professional associations
* 3 Journals
* 4 See also
* 5 Further reading
* 6 References
* 7 External links
[edit] History
STS is a new and expanding subject; for example, in 2005, four major United States universities announced new STS programs.[citation needed] Like most interdisciplinary programs, it emerged from the confluence of a variety of disciplines and disciplinary subfields, all of which had developed an interest—typically, during the 1960s or 1970s—in viewing science and technology as socially embedded enterprises.It is part of the Critical theory family or neo marxist interpretations.
[edit] Early developments
The key disciplinary components of STS took shape independently, beginning in the 1960s, and developed in isolation from each other well into the 1980s, although Ludwig Fleck's monograph (1935) Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact anticipated many of STS's key themes:
* Science studies, a branch of the sociology of scientific knowledge that places scientific controversies in their social context.
* History of technology, that examines technology in its social and historical context. Starting in the 1960s, some historians questioned technological determinism, a doctrine that can induce public passivity to technologic and scientific 'natural' development. At the same time, some historians began to develop similarly contextual approaches to the history of medicine.
* History and philosophy of science (1960s). After the publication of Thomas Kuhn's well-known The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), which attributed changes in scientific theories to changes in underlying intellectual paradigms, programs were founded at the University of California, Berkeley and elsewhere that brought historians of science and philosophers together in unified programs.
* Science, technology, and society In the mid- to late-1960s, student and faculty social movements in the U.S., UK, and European universities helped to launch a range of new interdisciplinary fields (such as Women's Studies) that were seen to address relevant topics that the traditional curriculum ignored. One such development was the rise of "science, technology, and society" programs, which are also—confusingly—known by the STS acronym. Drawn from a variety of disciplines, including anthropology, history, political science, and sociology, scholars in these programs created undergraduate curricula devoted to exploring the issues raised by science and technology. Unlike scholars in science studies, history of technology, or the history and philosophy of science, they were and are more likely to see themselves as activists working for change rather than dispassionate, "ivory tower" researchers[citation needed]. As an example of the activist impulse, feminist scholars in this and other emerging STS areas addressed themselves to the exclusion of women from science and engineering.
* Science, engineering, and public policy studies emerged in the 1970s from the same concerns that motivated the founders of the science, technology, and society movement: A sense that science and technology were developing in ways that were increasingly at odds with the public's best interests. The science, technology, and society movement tried to humanize those who would make tomorrow's science and technology, but this discipline took a different approach: It would train students with the professional skills needed to become players in science and technology policy. Some programs came to emphasize quantitative methodologies, and most of these were eventually absorbed into systems engineering. Others emphasized sociological and qualitative approaches, and found that their closest kin could be found among scholars in science, technology, and society departments.[citation needed]
During the 1970s and 1980s, leading universities in the U.S., UK, and Europe began drawing these various components together in new, interdisciplinary programs. For example, in the 1970s, Cornell University developed a new program that united science studies and policy-oriented scholars with historians and philosophers of science and technology. Each of these programs developed unique identities due to variation in the components that were drawn together, as well as their location within the various universities. For example, the University of Virginia's STS program united scholars drawn from a variety of fields (with particular strength in the history of technology); however, the program's teaching responsibilities—it is located within an engineering school and teaches ethics to undergraduate engineering students—means that all of its faculty share a strong interest in engineering ethics.
[edit] The "turn to technology"
A decisive moment in the development of STS was the mid-1980s addition of technology studies to the range of interests reflected in science studies programs. During that decade, two works appeared en seriatim that signaled what Steve Woolgar was to call the "turn to technology": Social Shaping of Technology (MacKenzie and Wajcman, 1985) and The Social Construction of Technological Systems (Bijker, Hughes and Pinch, 1987). MacKenzie and Wajcman primed the pump by publishing a collection of articles attesting to the influence of society on technological design. In a seminal article, Trevor Pinch and Wiebe Bijker attached all the legitimacy of the Sociology of Scientific Knowledge to this development by showing how the sociology of technology could proceed along precisely the theoretical and methodological lines established by the sociology of scientific knowledge. This was the intellectual foundation of the field they called the social construction of technology.
The "turn to technology" helped to cement an already growing awareness of underlying unity among the various emerging STS programs. More recently, there has been an associated turn to materiality, whereby the socio-technical and material co-produce each other. This is especially evident in work in STS analyses of biomedicine (such as Carl May, Nelly Oudshoorn, and Andrew Webster).
[edit] Professional associations
The subject has several professional associations.
Founded in 1975, the Society for Social Studies of Science, initially provided scholarly communication facilities—including a journal (Science, Technology, and Human Values) and annual meetings—that were mainly attended by science studies scholars, but the society has since grown into the most important professional association of science and technology studies scholars worldwide. The Society for Social Studies of Science members also include government and industry officials concerned with research and development as well as science and technology policy; scientists and engineers who wish to better understand the social embeddedness of their professional practice; and citizens concerned about the impact of science and technology in their lives. Proposals have been made to add the word "technology" to the association's name, thereby reflecting its stature as the leading STS professional society, but there seems to be widespread sentiment that the name is long enough as it is.
In Europe, the European Association for the Study of Science and Technology (EASST)[1] was founded in 1981 to stimulate communication, exchange and collaboration in the field of studies of science and technology.
Founded in 1958, the Society for the History of Technology initially attracted members from the history profession who had interests in the contextual history of technology. After the "turn to technology" in the mid-1980s, the society's well-regarded journal (Technology and Culture) and its annual meetings began to attract considerable interest from non-historians with technology studies interests.
Less identified with STS, but also of importance to many STS scholars in the US, are the History of Science Society, the Philosophy of Science Association, and the American Association for the History of Medicine. In addition, there are significant STS-oriented special interest groups within major disciplinary associations, including the American Anthropological Association, the American Political Science Association, and the American Sociological Association.
[edit] Journals
Important journals in STS are Social Studies of Science, Science, Technology and Human Values, Research Policy, Science Technology and Society, Science as Culture and Science and Public Policy.
[edit] See also
Telecom-icon.svg Technology portal
* Sociology of scientific knowledge
* Actor-Network Theory
* Normalization Process Theory
* Phronetic social science
* Mode 2
* Innovation system
* Technological innovation system
* Science of Team Science
[edit] Further reading
* Bauchspies, Wenda, Jennifer Croissant, and Sal Restivo (2005). Science, Technology, and Society: A Sociological Approach (Wiley-Blackwell, 2005).
* Bijker, Wiebe, Hughes, Thomas & Pinch, Trevor (eds.) (1987) The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology Cambridge MA/London: MIT Press.
* Cowan, Ruth Schwartz (1983). More Work For Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology From the Open Hearth to the Microwave. New York, NY: Basic Books.
* Ewen, Stuart (2008). Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality. New York, NY: Seven Stories Press.
* Foucault, Michel (1977). Discipline & Punish. New York, NY: Vintage Books.
* Fuller, Steve (1993). Philosophy, rhetoric, and the end of knowledge: The coming of science and technology studies. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. (2nd edition, with James H. Collier, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004)
* Hughes, Thomas (1989). American Genesis: A Century of Invention and Technological Enthusiasm, 1870 - 1970. New York, NY: Viking.
* Jasanoff, S., Markle, G., Petersen, J. and Pinch, T., eds (1994) Handbook of Science and Technology Studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
* Kuhn, Thomas (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
* Latour, Bruno (1987). Science in action: How to follow scientists and engineers through society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
* Latour, Bruno and Steve Woolgar (1986(1979)). Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
* MacKenzie, Donald & Wajcman, Judy (eds.) (1999) The Social Shaping of Technology: How the Refrigerator Got Its Hum Milton Keynes, Open University Press.
* Volti, Rudi (2001). Society and technological change. New York: Worth.
* MacKenzie, D. (1996) Knowing Machines: Essays on Technical Change. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
* Restivo, Sal (editor-in-chief), Science, Technology, and Society: An Encyclopedia. New York: Oxford, 2005.
* Restivo, Sal (1992), Mathematics in Society and History. New York: Springer.
* Rip, Arie, Thomas J. Misa and Johan Schot (eds.) (1995) Managing Technology in Society: The approach of Constructive Technology Assessment London/NY: Pinter.
* Rosenberg, Nathan (1994) Exploring the Black Box: Technology, Economics and History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Williams, R. & Edge, D. (1996). The Social Shaping of Technology. Research Policy, vol. 25, pp. 856–899.
[edit] References
1. ^ European Association for the Study of Science and Technology.
[edit] External links
* STSWiki (devoted to building resources, such as a worldwide list of STS programs and scholars)
* Normalization Process Theory toolkit
* STS-Wiki of (Dutch) STS PhD research school (this page is partly a private wiki)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies"
Categories: Science studies | Science and technology studies | Technology | Technology assessment | Social epistemology
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Science and technology studies (STS) is the study of how social, political, and cultural values affect scientific research and technological innovation, and how these in turn affect society, politics, and culture. STS scholars are interested in a variety of problems including the relationships between scientific and technological innovations and society, and the directions and risks of science and technology. More than two dozen universities worldwide offer baccalaureate degrees in STS; about half of these also offer doctoral or master's programs.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History
o 1.1 Early developments
o 1.2 The "turn to technology"
* 2 Professional associations
* 3 Journals
* 4 See also
* 5 Further reading
* 6 References
* 7 External links
[edit] History
STS is a new and expanding subject; for example, in 2005, four major United States universities announced new STS programs.[citation needed] Like most interdisciplinary programs, it emerged from the confluence of a variety of disciplines and disciplinary subfields, all of which had developed an interest—typically, during the 1960s or 1970s—in viewing science and technology as socially embedded enterprises.It is part of the Critical theory family or neo marxist interpretations.
[edit] Early developments
The key disciplinary components of STS took shape independently, beginning in the 1960s, and developed in isolation from each other well into the 1980s, although Ludwig Fleck's monograph (1935) Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact anticipated many of STS's key themes:
* Science studies, a branch of the sociology of scientific knowledge that places scientific controversies in their social context.
* History of technology, that examines technology in its social and historical context. Starting in the 1960s, some historians questioned technological determinism, a doctrine that can induce public passivity to technologic and scientific 'natural' development. At the same time, some historians began to develop similarly contextual approaches to the history of medicine.
* History and philosophy of science (1960s). After the publication of Thomas Kuhn's well-known The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), which attributed changes in scientific theories to changes in underlying intellectual paradigms, programs were founded at the University of California, Berkeley and elsewhere that brought historians of science and philosophers together in unified programs.
* Science, technology, and society In the mid- to late-1960s, student and faculty social movements in the U.S., UK, and European universities helped to launch a range of new interdisciplinary fields (such as Women's Studies) that were seen to address relevant topics that the traditional curriculum ignored. One such development was the rise of "science, technology, and society" programs, which are also—confusingly—known by the STS acronym. Drawn from a variety of disciplines, including anthropology, history, political science, and sociology, scholars in these programs created undergraduate curricula devoted to exploring the issues raised by science and technology. Unlike scholars in science studies, history of technology, or the history and philosophy of science, they were and are more likely to see themselves as activists working for change rather than dispassionate, "ivory tower" researchers[citation needed]. As an example of the activist impulse, feminist scholars in this and other emerging STS areas addressed themselves to the exclusion of women from science and engineering.
* Science, engineering, and public policy studies emerged in the 1970s from the same concerns that motivated the founders of the science, technology, and society movement: A sense that science and technology were developing in ways that were increasingly at odds with the public's best interests. The science, technology, and society movement tried to humanize those who would make tomorrow's science and technology, but this discipline took a different approach: It would train students with the professional skills needed to become players in science and technology policy. Some programs came to emphasize quantitative methodologies, and most of these were eventually absorbed into systems engineering. Others emphasized sociological and qualitative approaches, and found that their closest kin could be found among scholars in science, technology, and society departments.[citation needed]
During the 1970s and 1980s, leading universities in the U.S., UK, and Europe began drawing these various components together in new, interdisciplinary programs. For example, in the 1970s, Cornell University developed a new program that united science studies and policy-oriented scholars with historians and philosophers of science and technology. Each of these programs developed unique identities due to variation in the components that were drawn together, as well as their location within the various universities. For example, the University of Virginia's STS program united scholars drawn from a variety of fields (with particular strength in the history of technology); however, the program's teaching responsibilities—it is located within an engineering school and teaches ethics to undergraduate engineering students—means that all of its faculty share a strong interest in engineering ethics.
[edit] The "turn to technology"
A decisive moment in the development of STS was the mid-1980s addition of technology studies to the range of interests reflected in science studies programs. During that decade, two works appeared en seriatim that signaled what Steve Woolgar was to call the "turn to technology": Social Shaping of Technology (MacKenzie and Wajcman, 1985) and The Social Construction of Technological Systems (Bijker, Hughes and Pinch, 1987). MacKenzie and Wajcman primed the pump by publishing a collection of articles attesting to the influence of society on technological design. In a seminal article, Trevor Pinch and Wiebe Bijker attached all the legitimacy of the Sociology of Scientific Knowledge to this development by showing how the sociology of technology could proceed along precisely the theoretical and methodological lines established by the sociology of scientific knowledge. This was the intellectual foundation of the field they called the social construction of technology.
The "turn to technology" helped to cement an already growing awareness of underlying unity among the various emerging STS programs. More recently, there has been an associated turn to materiality, whereby the socio-technical and material co-produce each other. This is especially evident in work in STS analyses of biomedicine (such as Carl May, Nelly Oudshoorn, and Andrew Webster).
[edit] Professional associations
The subject has several professional associations.
Founded in 1975, the Society for Social Studies of Science, initially provided scholarly communication facilities—including a journal (Science, Technology, and Human Values) and annual meetings—that were mainly attended by science studies scholars, but the society has since grown into the most important professional association of science and technology studies scholars worldwide. The Society for Social Studies of Science members also include government and industry officials concerned with research and development as well as science and technology policy; scientists and engineers who wish to better understand the social embeddedness of their professional practice; and citizens concerned about the impact of science and technology in their lives. Proposals have been made to add the word "technology" to the association's name, thereby reflecting its stature as the leading STS professional society, but there seems to be widespread sentiment that the name is long enough as it is.
In Europe, the European Association for the Study of Science and Technology (EASST)[1] was founded in 1981 to stimulate communication, exchange and collaboration in the field of studies of science and technology.
Founded in 1958, the Society for the History of Technology initially attracted members from the history profession who had interests in the contextual history of technology. After the "turn to technology" in the mid-1980s, the society's well-regarded journal (Technology and Culture) and its annual meetings began to attract considerable interest from non-historians with technology studies interests.
Less identified with STS, but also of importance to many STS scholars in the US, are the History of Science Society, the Philosophy of Science Association, and the American Association for the History of Medicine. In addition, there are significant STS-oriented special interest groups within major disciplinary associations, including the American Anthropological Association, the American Political Science Association, and the American Sociological Association.
[edit] Journals
Important journals in STS are Social Studies of Science, Science, Technology and Human Values, Research Policy, Science Technology and Society, Science as Culture and Science and Public Policy.
[edit] See also
Telecom-icon.svg Technology portal
* Sociology of scientific knowledge
* Actor-Network Theory
* Normalization Process Theory
* Phronetic social science
* Mode 2
* Innovation system
* Technological innovation system
* Science of Team Science
[edit] Further reading
* Bauchspies, Wenda, Jennifer Croissant, and Sal Restivo (2005). Science, Technology, and Society: A Sociological Approach (Wiley-Blackwell, 2005).
* Bijker, Wiebe, Hughes, Thomas & Pinch, Trevor (eds.) (1987) The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology Cambridge MA/London: MIT Press.
* Cowan, Ruth Schwartz (1983). More Work For Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology From the Open Hearth to the Microwave. New York, NY: Basic Books.
* Ewen, Stuart (2008). Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality. New York, NY: Seven Stories Press.
* Foucault, Michel (1977). Discipline & Punish. New York, NY: Vintage Books.
* Fuller, Steve (1993). Philosophy, rhetoric, and the end of knowledge: The coming of science and technology studies. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. (2nd edition, with James H. Collier, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004)
* Hughes, Thomas (1989). American Genesis: A Century of Invention and Technological Enthusiasm, 1870 - 1970. New York, NY: Viking.
* Jasanoff, S., Markle, G., Petersen, J. and Pinch, T., eds (1994) Handbook of Science and Technology Studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
* Kuhn, Thomas (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
* Latour, Bruno (1987). Science in action: How to follow scientists and engineers through society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
* Latour, Bruno and Steve Woolgar (1986(1979)). Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
* MacKenzie, Donald & Wajcman, Judy (eds.) (1999) The Social Shaping of Technology: How the Refrigerator Got Its Hum Milton Keynes, Open University Press.
* Volti, Rudi (2001). Society and technological change. New York: Worth.
* MacKenzie, D. (1996) Knowing Machines: Essays on Technical Change. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
* Restivo, Sal (editor-in-chief), Science, Technology, and Society: An Encyclopedia. New York: Oxford, 2005.
* Restivo, Sal (1992), Mathematics in Society and History. New York: Springer.
* Rip, Arie, Thomas J. Misa and Johan Schot (eds.) (1995) Managing Technology in Society: The approach of Constructive Technology Assessment London/NY: Pinter.
* Rosenberg, Nathan (1994) Exploring the Black Box: Technology, Economics and History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Williams, R. & Edge, D. (1996). The Social Shaping of Technology. Research Policy, vol. 25, pp. 856–899.
[edit] References
1. ^ European Association for the Study of Science and Technology.
[edit] External links
* STSWiki (devoted to building resources, such as a worldwide list of STS programs and scholars)
* Normalization Process Theory toolkit
* STS-Wiki of (Dutch) STS PhD research school (this page is partly a private wiki)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies"
Categories: Science studies | Science and technology studies | Technology | Technology assessment | Social epistemology
Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from September 2010 | All articles needing additional references | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from February 2007 | Articles with unsourced statements from September 2010
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* ä¸æ–‡
* This page was last modified on 18 February 2011 at 14:39.
* Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
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Kamis, 24 Februari 2011
Ruang & Waktu serta Kecepatan Cahaya
Terapan
Jadikan Teman | Kirim Pesan
Loganue Saputra Jr {alf}
Ingin mengubah hidup dengan fiksi. Dan setelah itu ingin mengubah dunia menjadi lebih baik.
Ruang & Waktu serta Kecepatan Cahaya
OPINI | 24 February 2011 | 17:05 147 27
1 dari 1 Kompasianer menilai inspiratif
Komet adalah benda langit yang memiliki lintasan panjang dan kadang teratur, bentuknya yang terasa berekor (karena kecepatan gerak yang terbentuk akibat tekanan osmotik ruang angkasa mengakibatkan nyala pergerakan yang dibuatnya menimbulkan cahaya yang seolah-olah tertinggal). Nah dalam teori kecepatan cahaya, kecepatan lintasan komet sering di persepsikan sebagai kecepatan cahaya yang menembus pergerakan ruang hampa udara dimana pergerakannya itu menimbulkan gelombang udara yang menyeret lintasannya sendiri dan menghilang dalam hitungan detik.
Dengan teori bahwa pergerakan benda langit yang menggunakan kecepatan lintasan yang hampir menyamai kecepatan cahaya dan dengan pergerakan itu bisa menciptakan udara yang mengakibatkan pergesekan benda langit dengan ruang hampa udara sehingga terbentuklah nyala api yang terlihat samar maka, perjalanan waktu dengan melintasi pergerakan cahaya bisa dilakukan.
Ibaratnya seperti sekumpulan burung terbang yang membentuk pormasi meruncing dimana burung paling depan memiliki tugas untuk memecah ruang udara sehingga pergerakan mereka akan selalu tetap konstan. Jadi bagaimana cara mengikuti lintasan suatu komet untuk membentuk perjalanan antar galaksi?. Jawabannya adalah dengan mengikuti panjang lintasan suatu komet yang menembus pergerakan ruang dan waktu yang melewati suatu galaksi setiap ribuan tahun kecepatan cahaya.
Jika di piker dengan sangat jelas, terlalu mustahil manusia melakukan hal itu akan tetapi bagaimana jika kemudian pergerakan kecepatan cahaya itu kita samakan dengan teori yang pernah di cetuskan oleh Einstein?, simak sedikit penjelasan tentang teori di bawah ini :
Teori ini merupakan penjelasan gravitasi termutakhir dalam fisika modern, relativitas khusus, dengan hukum gravitasi Newton. Hal ini dilakukan dengan melihat gravitasi bukan sebagai gaya, tetapi lebih sebagai manifestasi dari kelengkungan ruang dan waktu. Utamanya, kelengkungan ruang waktu berhubungan langsung dengan momentum empat yakni energi massa dan momentum linear, dari materi atau radiasi apa saja yang ada. Hubungan ini digambarkan oleh persamaan medan Einstein. Teori ini memprediksikan adanya keberadaan daerah lubang hitam yang mana ruang dan waktu terdistorsi sedemikiannya tiada satu pun, bahkan cahaya pun, yang dapat lolos darinya. Terdapat bukti bahwa lubang hitam bintang dan jenis-jenis lubang hitam lainnya yang lebih besar bertanggungjawab terhadap radiasi kuat yang dipancarkan oleh objek-objek astronomi tertentu, seperti inti galaksi aktif dan miktrokuasar. Melengkungnya cahaya oleh gravitasi dapat menyebabkan fenomena pelensaan gravitasi.
Nah dalam teori di atas di katakana radiasi kuat yang di pancarkan oleh objek-objek astronomi tertentu, dalam hal ini kita bisa mengambil contoh yaitu komet tadi, di mana pergerakannya benar-benar bisa menembus ribuah tahun kecepatan cahaya dalam beberapa menit saja.
Setelah penjelasan panjang ini maka aka nada lagi pertanyaan, bagaimana mungkin sebuah pesawat yang di ciptakan manusia bisa memiliki kecepatan yang seimbang dengan kecepatan komet sedangkan persediaan bahan bakar yang dimiliki tidak akan pernah cukup untuk melakukan ini semua.
Maka dengan bangga penjelasan ini akan terasa masuk akal jika bahan bakar yang digunakan adalah “antimateri” sebuah energi yang berbentuk kecil tetapi memiliki kekuatan yang melebihi ribuan kecepatan cahaya
Lalu, kita bisa menciptakan kecepatan melebihi kecepatan cahaya dengan antimateri itu, mengontrol massa antimateri yang digunakan dengan perhitungan yang matang serta tepat lalu membatasi energi yang terpancarkan dengan gelombang grafitasi sehingga kelengkungan ruang dan waktu terkontrol dengan tepat.[]
Tulisan ini adalah analisa ngaur yang aku tulis sebagai ringkasan materi fiksi ilmiahku yang berjudul N. data dalam tulisan ini adalah data nyata yang di campur aduk dengan pemikiran rasional dalam kepalaku, jadi jangan perotes jika perhitungan dalam teori-teori ini adalah salah karena masih belum pernah diuji cobakan.
1298541805450924040
About Kompasiana
Jadikan Teman | Kirim Pesan
Loganue Saputra Jr {alf}
Ingin mengubah hidup dengan fiksi. Dan setelah itu ingin mengubah dunia menjadi lebih baik.
Ruang & Waktu serta Kecepatan Cahaya
OPINI | 24 February 2011 | 17:05 147 27
1 dari 1 Kompasianer menilai inspiratif
Komet adalah benda langit yang memiliki lintasan panjang dan kadang teratur, bentuknya yang terasa berekor (karena kecepatan gerak yang terbentuk akibat tekanan osmotik ruang angkasa mengakibatkan nyala pergerakan yang dibuatnya menimbulkan cahaya yang seolah-olah tertinggal). Nah dalam teori kecepatan cahaya, kecepatan lintasan komet sering di persepsikan sebagai kecepatan cahaya yang menembus pergerakan ruang hampa udara dimana pergerakannya itu menimbulkan gelombang udara yang menyeret lintasannya sendiri dan menghilang dalam hitungan detik.
Dengan teori bahwa pergerakan benda langit yang menggunakan kecepatan lintasan yang hampir menyamai kecepatan cahaya dan dengan pergerakan itu bisa menciptakan udara yang mengakibatkan pergesekan benda langit dengan ruang hampa udara sehingga terbentuklah nyala api yang terlihat samar maka, perjalanan waktu dengan melintasi pergerakan cahaya bisa dilakukan.
Ibaratnya seperti sekumpulan burung terbang yang membentuk pormasi meruncing dimana burung paling depan memiliki tugas untuk memecah ruang udara sehingga pergerakan mereka akan selalu tetap konstan. Jadi bagaimana cara mengikuti lintasan suatu komet untuk membentuk perjalanan antar galaksi?. Jawabannya adalah dengan mengikuti panjang lintasan suatu komet yang menembus pergerakan ruang dan waktu yang melewati suatu galaksi setiap ribuan tahun kecepatan cahaya.
Jika di piker dengan sangat jelas, terlalu mustahil manusia melakukan hal itu akan tetapi bagaimana jika kemudian pergerakan kecepatan cahaya itu kita samakan dengan teori yang pernah di cetuskan oleh Einstein?, simak sedikit penjelasan tentang teori di bawah ini :
Teori ini merupakan penjelasan gravitasi termutakhir dalam fisika modern, relativitas khusus, dengan hukum gravitasi Newton. Hal ini dilakukan dengan melihat gravitasi bukan sebagai gaya, tetapi lebih sebagai manifestasi dari kelengkungan ruang dan waktu. Utamanya, kelengkungan ruang waktu berhubungan langsung dengan momentum empat yakni energi massa dan momentum linear, dari materi atau radiasi apa saja yang ada. Hubungan ini digambarkan oleh persamaan medan Einstein. Teori ini memprediksikan adanya keberadaan daerah lubang hitam yang mana ruang dan waktu terdistorsi sedemikiannya tiada satu pun, bahkan cahaya pun, yang dapat lolos darinya. Terdapat bukti bahwa lubang hitam bintang dan jenis-jenis lubang hitam lainnya yang lebih besar bertanggungjawab terhadap radiasi kuat yang dipancarkan oleh objek-objek astronomi tertentu, seperti inti galaksi aktif dan miktrokuasar. Melengkungnya cahaya oleh gravitasi dapat menyebabkan fenomena pelensaan gravitasi.
Nah dalam teori di atas di katakana radiasi kuat yang di pancarkan oleh objek-objek astronomi tertentu, dalam hal ini kita bisa mengambil contoh yaitu komet tadi, di mana pergerakannya benar-benar bisa menembus ribuah tahun kecepatan cahaya dalam beberapa menit saja.
Setelah penjelasan panjang ini maka aka nada lagi pertanyaan, bagaimana mungkin sebuah pesawat yang di ciptakan manusia bisa memiliki kecepatan yang seimbang dengan kecepatan komet sedangkan persediaan bahan bakar yang dimiliki tidak akan pernah cukup untuk melakukan ini semua.
Maka dengan bangga penjelasan ini akan terasa masuk akal jika bahan bakar yang digunakan adalah “antimateri” sebuah energi yang berbentuk kecil tetapi memiliki kekuatan yang melebihi ribuan kecepatan cahaya
Lalu, kita bisa menciptakan kecepatan melebihi kecepatan cahaya dengan antimateri itu, mengontrol massa antimateri yang digunakan dengan perhitungan yang matang serta tepat lalu membatasi energi yang terpancarkan dengan gelombang grafitasi sehingga kelengkungan ruang dan waktu terkontrol dengan tepat.[]
Tulisan ini adalah analisa ngaur yang aku tulis sebagai ringkasan materi fiksi ilmiahku yang berjudul N. data dalam tulisan ini adalah data nyata yang di campur aduk dengan pemikiran rasional dalam kepalaku, jadi jangan perotes jika perhitungan dalam teori-teori ini adalah salah karena masih belum pernah diuji cobakan.
1298541805450924040
About Kompasiana
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* ICT4D in the Americas
* ICT4D in Middle East Project
A new corporate project that covers five countries in the Middle East: Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, West Bank and Gaza, and Yemen.
* Pan Asia Networking
Studying the impacts of ICTs on people, culture, the economy, and society in order to strengthen ICT uses that promote sustainable development.
* Exploring the impact of public access to ICT
A corporate project that aims to build research capacity and increase the understanding of social and economic impact of public access to ICT.
* telecentre.org
An initiative aimed at helping community telecentres around the world increase their capacity and promote digital development.
News
African Universities Need Affordable and Reliable Broadband 2009-10
Most universities in Africa pay about 100 times as much for the Internet as do those in Canada. IDRC is working to help solve this problem.
Multimedia
Map of "Teleaccess : Inside Africa"
Learn everything about the status of Teleaccess in Africa
IDRC_Teleaccess_small.gif
Open and Closed Skies: Satellite Access in Africa
Africa’s vast inaccessible terrain and insufficient energy infrastructure makes it difficult and costly to roll out wire-line networks and fibre optic links in heartland areas. Low-cost satellite-based Internet therefore responds to the access crisis in the region, and provides a potentially affordable opportunity for connectivity.
VSATMapWebversionEnglish.jpg
Document(s)
ICTs, Human Development, Growth and Poverty Reduction: A Background Paper (2009) 2009-04-28
Open file
Open ICT4D 2008-11-19
A working paper that explores the relevance and significance of Openness for ICT4D. Open file
telecentre.org Brochure 2005-11
Click on the file below to read about telecentre.org. Open file
Form(s)
ICT4D Project Directory
Advanced Search
guest (Read)(Ottawa) Login Home|Careers|Copyright and Terms of Use|General Infomation|Contact Us|Low bandwidth
From its creation in 1970, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) has been committed to advancing the role of information in development. A tradition of innovation that began with an emphasis on building databases and information systems has evolved into a focus on the transformative nature of information and communications technologies (ICTs).
IDRC was one of the first development agencies to embrace ICTs as a key means to foster development and alleviate poverty.
* Acacia Initiative
Communities and the Information Society in Africa Program Initiative increases the capacity of African communities to apply Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) to their own social and economic development.
* ICT4D Conferences and Events
* Connectivity Africa
Connectivity Africa program has been closed as of February 2008.
* ICT4D in the Americas
* ICT4D in Middle East Project
A new corporate project that covers five countries in the Middle East: Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, West Bank and Gaza, and Yemen.
* Pan Asia Networking
Studying the impacts of ICTs on people, culture, the economy, and society in order to strengthen ICT uses that promote sustainable development.
* Exploring the impact of public access to ICT
A corporate project that aims to build research capacity and increase the understanding of social and economic impact of public access to ICT.
* telecentre.org
An initiative aimed at helping community telecentres around the world increase their capacity and promote digital development.
News
African Universities Need Affordable and Reliable Broadband 2009-10
Most universities in Africa pay about 100 times as much for the Internet as do those in Canada. IDRC is working to help solve this problem.
Multimedia
Map of "Teleaccess : Inside Africa"
Learn everything about the status of Teleaccess in Africa
IDRC_Teleaccess_small.gif
Open and Closed Skies: Satellite Access in Africa
Africa’s vast inaccessible terrain and insufficient energy infrastructure makes it difficult and costly to roll out wire-line networks and fibre optic links in heartland areas. Low-cost satellite-based Internet therefore responds to the access crisis in the region, and provides a potentially affordable opportunity for connectivity.
VSATMapWebversionEnglish.jpg
Document(s)
ICTs, Human Development, Growth and Poverty Reduction: A Background Paper (2009) 2009-04-28
Open file
Open ICT4D 2008-11-19
A working paper that explores the relevance and significance of Openness for ICT4D. Open file
telecentre.org Brochure 2005-11
Click on the file below to read about telecentre.org. Open file
Form(s)
ICT4D Project Directory
Advanced Search
guest (Read)(Ottawa) Login Home|Careers|Copyright and Terms of Use|General Infomation|Contact Us|Low bandwidth
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